Learning can be tricky business. Even in the best circumstances, the process by which we gather and understand new information is fraught with peaks and valleys, stops and starts, successes and failures. When complicating factors are present—that reach above and beyond typical two steps forward and one step back—the task of learning becomes even more difficult.
Within this picture, parents and educators must pay close attention to children and notice when additional help is needed in an effort to enhance learning opportunities. At a fundamental level, Response to Intervention (RTI) is a systematic way of determining individual student needs and engaging necessary supports to meet those needs. NICHCY is pleased to connect you with resources on RTI.
RTI is both an early intervention strategy within the general education and one part in the process by which students may be identifed to receive special education and related services within all public schools in the United States. This NICHCY Connections piece synthesizes what we know about RTI, provides access to RTI related information, and discusses RTI from the perspective of people directly involved in the RTI process.
What is Response to Intervention or RTI?
There is no single, absolute definition of RTI. Fuchs and Fuchs (2007) refer to three commonly described uses of RTI:
- Prediction of at-risk students;
- Intervention for students with academic or behavioral difficulties
- Determination of specific learning disabilities (SLD).
The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD), in its report, Responsiveness to Intervention and Learning Disabilities (June, 2005) introduces the benefits of RTI stating:
"A key element of an RTI approach is the provision of early intervention when students first experience academic difficulties, with the goal of improving the achievement of all students, including those who may have LD."
This report further explains:
"Core concepts of an RTI approach are the systemic (a) application of scientific, research-based interventions in general education; (b) measurement of a child’s response to these interventions; and (c) use of the RTI to inform instruction (2005)."
The NJCLD RTI report can be found under “NJCLD reports and helpful resources”
http://www.ldonline.org/about/partners/njcld#position
What does all this mean in terms of the content students are taught, how childrens’ needs are determined, and the ways in which the educational opportunities are provided for all students? As both an instructional process and new component in special education law (IDEA, 2004), questions abound as RTI makes its way through state houses, classrooms, universities, and households.
Fortunately, several resources exist to help clarify the “big picture” of RTI.
Fuchs and Fuchs present a “blueprint” for understanding RTI. One such resource is found in Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. (2005). Responsiveness-to-Intervention: A Blueprint for Practitioners, Policymakers, and Parents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38, 57-61.
http://www.advocacyinstitute.org/resources/TEC_RtIblueprint.pdf
Fuchs and Fuchs offer a “blueprint” for understanding RTI. The authors present a four-step process that describes how a student progresses from initial screening to SLD (specific learning disability) identification.
The United States Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs’ (OSEP) Toolkit on Teaching and Assessing Students with Disabilities can also be particularly helpful in outlining RTI . This toolkit includes an overview of the law that defines the SLD identification process, and describes a conceptual model that outlines tiered interventions, and profiles of students during an RTI process.
http://www.osepideasthatwork.org/toolkit/ta_responsiveness_intervention.asp
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Why RTI?
RTI became part of the special education process with reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004. The regulations for implementing IDEA say that States “must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, …” Further, States “must permit the use of a process based on the child’s response to scientific, research-based intervention.” [34 C.F.R. § 300.307(a)(1) (2006)] As such, RTI can be a part of the process by which children are identifed to receive special education and related services.
The Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) of the United States Department of Education has posted a technical discussion of regulations and of implications for the implementation of the regulations, and a summary of key issues around early intervening services as they relate to RTI.
http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CPresentation%2C28%2C
An OSEP question and answer session, “Q and A: Questions and Answers On Response to Intervention (RTI) and Early Intervening Services (EIS),” addresses the relationship between RTI and general education and special education, evaluation and eligibility determination.
http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CQaCorner%2C8%2C
Essential Elements of RTI
Although there is no specific definition of RTI, essential elements can be found when we take a look at how states, schools, and districts fit RTI into their work. In general, RTI includes screening children within the general curriculum, progress monitoring, small group instruction, and comprehensive evaluation (Fuchs and Mellard, 2007).
Universal Screening means all students are involved in an initial assessment of knowledge and skills, rather than simply assessing students who appear to be struggling in early stages of instruction. Assessment of early reading skills has received particular attention as screening tools have been developed.
The State Education Resource Center (SERC) in Connecticut offers a definition of universal screening and resources to support universal screening efforts can be found at their website.
http://www.ctserc.org/rti/components/universal.shtml
Another central concept with respect to RTI involves instruction and interventions being offered through a flexible process that is targeted to the needs of the individual child. Within Tiered Instruction, all students start within the general curriculum and move through the curriculum receiving adapted and individualized interventions of increasing intensity depending on a student’s earlier response. Generally speaking, once a child has received all tiers of intervention and is not progressing at a typically developing rate, they are then referred for evaluation to determine if special education and related services are warranted.
RTI models vary with respect to the number of tiers involved in the process. There is no “official” recommendation as to the most effective number of tiers. Three tiers of instructional intervention is a common practice. The Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Language Arts has developed a 3 tier model of reading intervention. As an example of a tiered instructional approach, publications focus on their model and a brief description of their process is available on their website.
http://www.texasreading.org/3tier/
The state of West Virgina has also developed a training module around tiered instruction. Their model describes the ins and outs of implementing a tiered instructional model. http://wvde.state.wv.us/reading/reading-module/H%20-Intervention/8.0%20Three%20Tier%20Update.ppt
Progress monitoring can be understood as the ongoing, formative assessment of a students’ academic development. Progress monitoring allows an instructional team to identify student needs and tailor instruction based upon knowledge of student skills. When used as part of a tiered instructional process, progress monitoring can provide the information by which informed judgments can be made about the student’s development, and need for movement from tier to tier.
This article available from the link below, provides two case study examples of progress monitoring in action. They are particlaurly useful in looking at the relationship between ongoing assessment and instructional decision making.
http://www.studentprogress.org/library/decisionmaking.pdf
The National Center for Educational Outcomes synthesized information related to progress monitoring within standards-based assessment and accountability system. This technical report details information surrounding the strengths and challenges of progress monitoring.
http://education.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Synthesis53.html
Curriculum-based Measurement is a specific type of progress monitoring. The Curriculum-based Measures Warehouse is a resource for implementing progress monitoring including curricula and tools.
http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interventions/cbmwarehouse.php
Evidenced-based interventions are a cornerstone of instruction within an RTI process. Within an RTI process, implementation of instructional strategies and interventions is based on the knowledge of research results. Using evidence-based practices ensures better results for students—the thinking goes, “it has been proven to work before for other students, therefore, it may likely work with my students as well.”
So, how do you know what practices are evidenced-based? The United States Department of Education has created a guide that walks people through the process of finding evidence-based practices, “Identifying and Implementing Educational Practices Supported by Rigorous Evidence.”
http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/rigorousevid/index.html
The following websites present examples of evidenced-based interventions. They are, for the most part, organized by subject matter and grade-level. They do not provide an exhaustive list of all available interventions; however, they are the current thinking around what works for students.
What Works Clearinghouse
http://www.whatworks.ed.gov/
Best Evidence Encyclopedia
http://www.bestevidence.org/
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Two predominant RTI program models include the problem-solving and the standard protocol. The problem solving model, which evolved out of the school problem solving team approach, utilizes individually designed prevention interventions (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007) with students who have academic and/or behavioral challenges. The standard protocol model uses specific, predetermined, instructional techniques that have been demonstrated to improve student achievement in research studies. As state and local education agencies have learned about the unique needs of their districts and schools, hybrids of the models have evolved.
The Access Center hosted a webinar entitled "Implementing RtI: Lessons from the Minneapolis Public Schools Problem-Solving Model."
http://www.k8accesscenter.org/sharing/InformationSharingWebinars.asp
Burns, M., Ysseldyke, J.(2006). Comparison of Existing Response-to-Intervention Models to Identify and Answer Implementation Questions. NASP Communique, 34(5).
http://www.nasponline.org/publications/cq/cq345rti_burns.aspx
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A great deal of RTI information has been developed within the reading community. Many times students are screened for different reading-related skills, such as fluency and phonemic awareness. Also, many interventions directly address specific areas of reading-related skills. The prominance of reading within the RTI landscape requires a closer look at the context and implications of RTI specifically for reading instruction.
Reading Rockets, a national dissemination center for reading information, provides an RTI overview from the perspective of reading instruction. They suggests an RTI process involving screening, teaching, intervening, probing, charting, and adjusting.
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/14596
The International Reading Association (IRA) offers a comprehensive statement on implications for reading teachers within an RTI process. Specifically, they discuss condsiderations for implementation and offer implementation case studies.
http://www.reading.org/downloads/resources/rti0707_implications.pdf
The Florida Center for Reading Research offers their understanding of RTI and reading as well. This site is particularly helpful in that it provides research and information in addition to offering examples of successful interventions that have been proven to achieve positive results for children specifically in the area of reading-related skills.
http://www.fcrr.org/pmrn/tier3/tier3interventions.htm
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Communication with parents and family plays a key role in an RTI process. The parent primer put together by the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) discusses the specific ways in which parents can be involved in RTI. http://www.nasponline.org/resources/factsheets/rtiprimer.aspx
The National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) authored a report entitled, “Helping Educators Discuss Responsiveness to Intervention with Parents and Students.” The report describes RTI and distills aspects of the RTI process that need to be considered by families when participating in RTI.
http://www.nrcld.org/resource_kit/general/Q&AEducators2007.pdf
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Stories from the field can be helpful in learning about what RTI looks like in the real world. The National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) reviewed RTI within 19 elementary schools they found engaging in one or more recommended RTI practices: school-wide screening, progress monitoring, tiered service delivery, data-based decision making, parent involvement, and fidelity of implementation.
http://www.ncld.org/content/view/1220/389/
The Tigard Tualatin School District in Oregon has built a comprehensive RTI model. Their website details many of their RTI tools, the Oregon RTI initiative, and connections to the materials that have guided them as they have embedded RTI in the work of their district.
http://www.ttsd.k12.or.us/search?SearchableText=rti
Several toolkits exist to teach educators how to implement RTI. As state and local district seek to better understand, and explain, RTI, these example resources can provide helpful guidance.
The Learning Disabilities Resource Kit produced by the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities presents a guide to determining specific learning disabilities, intervention tools, and an RTI “how to”.
http://www.nrcld.org
IRIS Center Online Modules detailing RTI can be found under Differentiated Instruction on their website. The 4 modules focused on RTI contain an overview of RTI, a look at assessment and RTI, RTI and reading instruction, and general RTI implementation.
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/onlinemodules.html
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As an initiative that state and local education agencies develop and implement, an important piece of the RTI puzzle is to look specifically at state and local contexts and see what is going on there. To find out more about what is happening with respect to RTI in specific state and local areas, several resources can be found to guide the journey.
The Regional Resource Centers and the Federal Resource Center provide a direct link to the latest information on RTI implementation at the state level.
http://www.rrfcnetwork.org/component/option,com_bookmarks/Itemid,28/
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The IDEA Partnership provides another avenue into finding about what RTI programs and initiatives are developing at the state and local level.
http://www.ideapartnership.org/report.cfm?reportid=309
If you are still having trouble figuring out about RTI in state and local contexts, take a look at our state sheets. Our state sheets provide general contact information for relevant state agencies. From there, you can contact the state directly (probably via their Office of Special Education within their Department of Education) to find out more,
http://www.nichcy.org/states.htm
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Many hot topics surround fully realized implementation of RTI. As a legislatively presented option with relatively new found momentum, many of the hot topic issues have not been addressed in the research due to time and resources. The naturally complex intermingling of systems within an RTI process has also contributed to a less than complete understanding of the process for all kids in all contexts. New relationships have had to be formed, or are forming, between people who have traditionally worked in separate parts of the educational process. As new systems are created, it is helpful to think thoughtfully about the larger impact of the work.
Students with Low Incidence Disabilites
In what ways does RTI impact students with low incidence disabilities? Specifically, how can they participate in and benefit from evidence-based interventions? Can interventions be tailored to meet the needs of students who are blind or visually impaired, for example? With respect to LD identification, how can RTI systems be effectively developed that are sensitive to and accurately assess the skill, ability, and potential of all students?
Taking a look at general curriculum access, and methods by which that is accomplished, may be a place to start to understand how an RTI process can be inclusively designed. The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) offers a statement with respect to the ways in which a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework may inform educational policy, like those governing RTI, affecting students with low incidence disabilities. Without question, attention by educators, researchers, and policy makers as to the impact of RTI on students with low incidence disabilities is necessary as RTI continues to develop.
http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_lowinc_section9.html
Middle and High School Students
An online question and answer session conducted by the National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) fielded a question specifically about RTI and high school students. The response, offered by Dr. Judy Elliott, focuses on the importance of progress monitoring, at any level, to accurrately understand if a student is mastering curriculum. The complete text of the question and answer session can illuminate some finer points of RTI implementation
http://www.ncld.org/content/view/930
The Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) voiced concern over RTI at the Middle and High School level based on lack of research supporting extending RTI beyond elementary grades.
http://www.ldaamerica.org/about/position/print_rti.asp
The National High School Center published a report, “Meeting the Needs of Significantly Struggling Learners in High Schools: A Look at Approaches to Tiered Intervention.” Specific issues included in the report include developing appropriate screening and intervention tools, considering structural and instructional needs of the high school environment, and creating professional development and communication opportunities. http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/NHSC_RTIBrief_08-02-07.pdf
Early Childhood Education
As an initiative tied to early intervening services within the federal law, understanding how an RTI process can inform work with children ages 3-5 needs to happen as RTI moves forward. Paying attention and addressing the needs of children early on may prevent difficulties that otherwise might not surface until well into their school age years.
Recognition and Response is an RTI-inspired system designed to help early childhood teachers and parents recognizechildren who show early signs of learning difficulty and respond in ways that help them before the enter a highly formalized educational system.
http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~randr/
RTI and Disproportionality and Overrepresentation
The National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCREST) offers cultural considerations and challenges with respect to RTI models and implementation. NCCREST acknowledges the potential for RTI to increase opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students, and decrease disproportionate representation in special education. They also caution against allowing RTI move forward without acknowledging the culturally-bound nature of learning and schools.
http://www.nccrest.org/PDFs/rti.pdf?v_document_name=Culturally%20Responsive%20RTI
Given that much of the emphasis of RTI has been focused on reading-related skill development, it makes sense to pay attention to the established connection between reading and identification of students to receive special education and related services. A position statement by the National Reading Association addresses overrepresentation of minority children in special education. They explore the research base that emphasizes the important role of effective reading instruction, and suggest:
strong collaboration focusing first on effective reading instruction, then on modest reading in-class reading interventions, and finally on more intensive small-group and one-on-one tutoring in reading is crucial sequnce for reducing the overrepresentation of minority children in special education in the United States.
http://www.reading.org/downloads/positions/ps1063_minorities.pdf
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Resources are being developed daily that explore RTI from a variety of perspectives. Research into RTI is being conducted. RTI policies are being created. RTI programs are being implemented. RTI materials are being written. Educators and children are participating in the RTI process. Sharing information across the spectrum of interests and activities is the challenge that currently confronts the educational community.
National Research Center on Learning Disabilities hosted a conference entitled, “National State Education Agency Conference on SLD Determination: Integrating RTI within the SLD Determination Process.” This important meeting brought together educational leaders to discuss the gamut of RTI-related ideas. This resource provides a comprehensive look into RTI from the perspective of educators, researchers, and policy makers.
http://www.nrcld.org/sea/index.html
The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) developed guidelines that address special education as it relates to RTI. Their guidelines explain RTI is a process designed, “to identify risk in children early, to provide access to prevention interventions, and to help identify children with disabilities…” From this broad perspective, they assert that RTI process needs to: involve both general and special educators, continue to support all legal safeguards that are part of the special education referral process, and draw heavily on research and evaluation as wide-scale implementation continues.
http://www.cec.sped.org/Content/NavigationMenu/PolicyAdvocacy/CAN/
UpcomingCANEvents/RTI_Breakoutsession.ppt#1
National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDE) Response to Intervention (RtI) Project has been a leader in development of effective RTI policy. Particularly, their document, “Response to Intervention: Policy Considerations and Implementation,” is consulted widely by state and local education leaders as they seek to explore RTI. Their project provides a wealth of RTI information.
http://www.nasdse.org/projects.cfm?pageprojectid=23
In Fall of 2007, the National Center on Response to Intervention was launched to support the research and development of RTI. Though the primary audience for the Center’s information is state and district level administrators, the information provided by the Center will be an important piece of the implementation puzzle that seeks to effectively realize systemic RTI implementation.
http://www.rti4success.org/
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